Politics of the Popular (Certeau)

In his article “The Practice of Everyday Life,” Michel de Certeau explores the ‘ways of operating,’ or everyday practices, in order to articulate them. Certeau focuses on consumer production, which involves usage, consumption, the procedures of everyday creativity, the formal structure of practice, the marginality of a majority; also, he focuses on the tactics of practices, which involves trajectories, tactics, and rhetorics, and reading, talking, dwelling, and cooking. In the last category, Certeau writes that, “To describe these everyday practices that produce without capitalizing, that is, without taking control over time, one starting point seemed inevitable because it is the ‘exorbitant’ focus of contemporary culture and its consumption: reading” (552).

In continuation, Certeau writes that, “Reading thus introduces an ‘art’ which is anything but passive. It resembles rather than art whose theory was developed by medieval poets and romancers: an innovation infiltrated into the text and even into the terms of a tradition” (553). Because reading does not entail passive consumption, Certeau seems to be arguing that consumers are very involved in their culture, and also contribute to it. Another example of an everyday practices that are not passive are holiday celebrations and parties. They are rooted into tradition and encompass a complex producer-consumer relationship.

Certeau’s article was an interesting read overall, and it seems to be successful in achieving its goal to “make such a discussion possible; that is, by means of inquiries and hypotheses, to indicate pathways for further research” (545). The ideas seem strong, and he gives sufficient examples and thorough explanations. In addition, I enjoyed his closing lines:

“But our research has concentrated above all on the uses of space, on the ways of frequenting or dwelling in a place, on the complex processes of the art of cooking, and on the many ways of establishing a kind of reliability within the situations imposed on an individual, that is, of making it possible to live in them by reintroducing into them the plural mobility of goals and desires – an art of manipulating and enjoying”

Politics of the Popular

Suzanne Collins’ The Hunger Games series has launched the birth of hundreds of fan sites, a movie series, fanfictions, fan art, and numerous social media pages and accounts dedicated to communicating with and linking together enthusiasts of the popular novels. But what, exactly, is the significance of this fandom, and how does it relate to culture as a whole? John Storey takes into account Henry Jenkins’ theories on “fandom” and fan culture, and he explains:

Fans do not just read texts, they continually re-read them. This changes profoundly the nature of the text-reader relationship. Re-reading undermines the operations of what Barthes (1975) calls the ‘hermeneutic code’ (the way a text poses questions to generate the desire to keep reading). Re-reading in this way thus shifts the reader’s attention from ‘what will happen’ to ‘how things happen’, to questions of character relations, narrative themes, the production of social knowledges and discourses. (229)

Fans of The Hunger Games series have developed a deeper “text-reader relationship” based on the notion that they have spent more time with the novels, and they develop a relationship of symbiosis. The reader-fans rely on the series, and the series’ popularity relies on the readers. As John Storey writes, “Fan cultures are not just bodies of enthusiastic readers; they are also active cultural producers” (229). Because of this, the series’ fan culture is not a passive group by any means – they are constantly creating new materials that keep the popularity of the series alive.

Without the fan base that The Hunger Games has formed, few of these “productions” would exist, and the series might not have ever been brought into pop culture’s eye – dominating magazine covers, tabloids, and countless websites. Henry Jenkins defined the difference between “mundanes” (non-fan readers) and fans as a variance in passion and participation, and Storey adds that, “It is not the commodities that are empowering, it is what the fans do with them that empowers” (230). In this way, The Hunger Games possess the potential to “empower” its readers, but the fans are the source that determines how and allows them to become empowering.

Postmodernism (Hebdige)

In his article, Dick Hebdige explores the concept of postmodernity and the success and problems of the “buzzword” status of the term “postmodern.” Hebdige writes that, “Though classes still exist, there is no guaranteed dynamic to class struggle and no ‘class belonging’” there are no solid homes to return to, no places reserved in advance for the righteous. No one ‘owns’ an ‘ideology’ because ideologies are themselves in process: in a state of constant formation and reformation” (441). Because of this, the term “postmodern” is almost too broad that it becomes unstable and essentially meaningless.  
 

If we apply Hebdige’s ideas to Miley Cyrus’s two music videos, “We Can’t Stop” and “Wrecking Ball,” it becomes apparent that – in today’s world – the sublime is favored over the beautiful. Hebdige writes that, “For Lyotard, a properly avant-garde poem or canvas takes us to this sublime point where consciousness and being bang up against their own limitations in the prospect of absolute otherness – God or infinity – in the prospect, that is, of their disappearance in death and silence” (438).  Though some have been baffled by the contents of Miley’s videos, others have described the videos as artistic and innovative. Without the “ideal” that existed with modernity, it becomes possible for any expression or creation to be labeled as “art.” 

Hebdige also writes that, “the experience of postmodernity is positively schizogenic: a grotesque attenuation – possibly monstrous, occasionally joyous – of our capacity to feel and to respond. Postmodernity is modernity without the hopes and dreams which made modernity bearable” (436). Though this may seem like a pessimistic outlook, what Hebdige seems to be describing is an anything-goes culture that gives power to individual preferences rather than the oppressive “global ideal.” In this way, Miley Cyrus’s videos can be considered “art” and can be respected or appreciated for the experience they offer to the audience – testing the viewer’s capacities of feeling and responding.

Postmodernism (Baudrillard)

It is surprising, in today’s culture, to encounter an advertisement or magazine cover that does not feature a beautiful human with impeccable features: flawless skin, perfect facial symmetry, a pure white smile.  We hold these images to be the ‘real’ faces of models and celebrities that we admire and obsess over in various forms of media, whether it is the web, video, or print. However, is this really the ‘reality’ of these stars?

According to postmodernist theories, the phenomenon of Photoshop and digital editing of images are both examples of the collapse of the aura of the original. In his article, “The Precession of Simulacra,” Jean Baudrillard writes that, “Abstraction today is no longer that of the map, the double, the mirror or the concept. Simulation is no longer that of a territory, a referential being or a substance. It is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality: a hyperreal” (409). Photographs of famous celebrities are, in a way, a copy of the “original” image, and when these copies are altered, it creates a simulacrum. 

When regarding the “original” and “reality,” Baudrillard adds that, “It no longer has to be rational, since it is no longer measured against some ideal or negative instance. It is nothing more than operational. In fact, since it is no longer enveloped by an imaginary, it is no longer real at all;” rather; he states, “It is a hyperreal, the product of an irradiating synthesis of combinatory models in a hyperspace without atmosphere” (410). In this case, airbrushed and altered photographs that are advertised to the public can qualify as “hyperreal.” Though people may accept these pictures as “reality,” they are not – by definition – real, since they are frequently too skewed to be considered rational or natural. And yet, these photographs are just as “real” to us as the original photos, and we still consider these photos to be the “real” celebrity.

Postmodernism

John Storey writes that, “Another aspect of the postmodern is convergence culture, ‘where old and new media collide, where grassroots and corporate media intersect, where the power of the media producer and the power of the media consumer interact in unpredictable ways” (216). This “convergence culture” is a breeding ground of both “struggle and negotiation,” and it is a result of concentrated media ownership, changes in technology, and media consumers.

An example of the postmodern embrace of this convergence culture is the popular book series The Hunger Games, by Suzanne Collins. Though the series began as novels, it eventually launched thousands of fan sites, blogs, and even a highly successful movie. The books are considered to be a part of the Young Adult Dystopian genre, and yet they were marketed to both teenagers and adults of all ages and social statuses. Also, the books can be accessed through e-readers and other electronic means – such as audio books, and the movie can be purchased at a local store or purchased online.

 

Currently, the media follows the stars of The Hunger Games movie, and it is nearly impossible to pick up a magazine or check an online entertainment blog without encountering news of Jennifer Lawrence, Josh Hutcherson, Liam Hemsworth, or Woody Harrelson – who all play leading roles. Additionally, sites like Facebook and Twitter are outlets that allow the series to gain even more of a following, and to communicate fans’ creations such as fanfictions and artworks depicting the novels’ characters. This juxtaposition of new and old media in production and consumption of The Hunger Games demonstrates the “convergence culture” in postmodernism. The success of this franchise is largely due to its versatility in means of promotion, its appeal to consumers, and its accessibility.

'Race,' Racism and Representation

In Nazi Germany, the concept of the superiority of the ‘Aryan race’ was created and became widely accepted among the population – and the race signified human perfection and purity. Anyone outside of the ‘Aryan race’ was considered to be inferior, and they were often regarded with hostility and distaste.  A number of physical traits were often considered to be the Aryan ideal, and these included: light skin, light hair, blue eyes, and tall height. But how, exactly, did this ‘race’ come to be? In Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: An Introduction, John Storey writes that, “Whether or not they are made to signify, physical differences between human beings exist. But how they are made to signify is always a result of politics and power, rather than a question of biology” (172).

If we consider the ‘Aryan race’ from this perspective, we can reason that what the Aryan race’s image signified was not truly their biological superiority; rather, the ‘race’ was created in order to establish power and dominance over political opponents. By establishing the concept of a master race, those who fit into the Aryan standards were able to secure their power by ‘othering’ and oppressing those who did not fit into the Aryan standards. 

Additionally, John Storey writes that, “The work of cultural studies, like that of all reasonable intellectual traditions, is to intellectually, and by example, help to defeat racism, and so by doing, help to bring into being a world in which the term ‘race’ is little more than a long disused historical category, signifying in the contemporary nothing more than the human race (185). When we analyze the occurrence of racial stereotypes and racism, we realize that the term ‘race’ exists as a discourse that allows racism to occur. Though it was passed off as the ‘master race’, in reality, the concept of the ‘Aryan race’ is a mere construct – a set of guidelines established in order for Aryan supremacists to gain more power and to oppress any threat to this power.

Videogames, Avatars, and Identity (Waggoner)

In “Videogames, Avatars, and Identity,” Zach Waggoner explores the relationships between humans and the virtual realities that they engage in. The rising genre of “videogame” is – as Waggoner points out – beginning to surpass movies and television in favored form of entertainment, since they allow a person to represent themselves through an “avatar,” or virtual identity. Waggoner writes, “My relationship with my avatar seems more complicated than that. Exactly how I believe it is more complicated (for other videogamers as well as myself) and will take some explaining as videogame technologies offer users interactive and immersive experience that convey verisimilitude and beyond more with each passing year” (488).

This article seems closely linked to Bazerman’s genre theories, since Waggoner explores a particular genre (videogames), and explores the ways in which it organizes and shapes human activity, experience, and the meanings we create. Waggoner seems to be saying that it is possible for us to carry our virtual identities and experiences over into reality, and vice-versa. In addition, he stresses the role-playing aspect of certain video games, and how people often change their behavior in order to adapt to a certain situation, or to adhere to the norms that are expected of them. 

Waggoner’s article is engaging and interesting, and I found it to be a good example of genre analysis. Rather than viewing the subjects of “videogames” and “avatars” through a particular theoretical lens, Waggoner explores them from various angles in order to gather an enriched understanding the relationship between them and people. Also, Waggoner brings up some very cool ideas about reality. Prior to this, we have discussed “reality” and “fantasy,” but Waggoner explores the idea of “virtual reality” – which complicates the question of what is really ‘real?’